MILNET: Country Studies
Syria
Syrian Military
Syrian Field Strength - 1986
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The
Mandate volunteer force formed in 1920 was established
with the threat of Syrian-Arab nationalism in mind. Although the
unit's officers were originally all French, it was, in effect,
the first indigenous modern Syrian army. In 1925 the unit was
designated the Levantine Special Forces (Troupes Spéciales du
Levant). In 1941, the force participated in a futile resistance
to the British and Free French invasion that ousted the Vichy
French from Syria. After the Allied takeover, the army came under
the control of the Free French and was designated the Levantine
Forces (Troupes du Levant).
French
Mandate authorities maintained a gendarmerie to police
Syria's vast rural areas. This paramilitary force was used to
combat criminals and political foes of the Mandate government. As
with the Levantine Special Forces, French officers held the top
posts, but as Syrian independence approached, the ranks below
major were gradually filled by Syrian officers who had graduated
from the Military Academy at Homs, which had been established by
the French during the 1930s. In 1938 the Troupes Spéciales
numbered around 10,000 men and 306 officers (of whom 88 were
French, mainly in the higher ranks). A majority of the Syrian
troops were of rural background and minority ethnic origin
(mainly Alawis, Druzes, Kurds, and Circassians) (see Glossary).
By the end of 1945, the army numbered about 5,000 and the
gendarmerie some 3,500. In April 1946, the last French officers
left Syria; the Levantine Forces then became the regular armed
forces of the newly independent state and grew rapidly to about
12,000 by the time of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the first of
four Arab-Israeli wars between 1948 and 1986 (not counting the
1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon).
The
air force was formed in 1948 on the graduation of the
first class of Syrian pilots from British flight schools. Two
years later, with the procurement of a few naval craft from
France, a small navy was established, using army personnel who
had been sent to French academies for naval training.
French
Mandate authorities were thus responsible for the
initial development of Syria's armed forces, but by the mid1940s , for
a variety of reasons, Syrians had developed a profound
distrust of the French in particular and Western Europeans in
general. The growth of pan-Arabism throughout much of the Arab
world, including Syria, during the interwar years paralleled the
feelings of anti-Westernism that were growing in the region.
Various
foreign countries were essential to the development
of the armed forces of the late 1980s. As the former colonial
power, France had been the dominant foreign influence during the
formative years after Syria's independence. Later, Britain and
the United States also aided the military, largely by serving as
sources of professional officer training. During the 1958-61
union with Egypt, Egyptian doctrine and training were
influential. By 1987, however, the Soviet Union was the
predominant foreign influence, as it had been for over two
decades. At times, Syrian-Soviet relations have been strained,
and Syria has guarded its freedom to make policy independent of
the Soviets, particularly with regard to Iraq, Lebanon, and the
Palestinians. However, Soviet military assistance and the
presence of Soviet military advisers continued to be essential to
the growth and professionalization of the armed forces. Other
East European countries, notably Czechoslovakia, East Germany,
and Romania, have also provided some materiel and training (see
Foreign Policy, ch. 4).
The
Soviet-Syrian military relationship began in March 1955,
when the Soviets offered to extend considerable economic and
military assistance in support of Syria's refusal to join the
Baghdad Pact, an alliance that was being formed under the general
auspices of Britain and the United States. Initial arms shipments
arrived from Czechoslovakia in 1956, but East European aid was
small-scale until the rise of Baathist President Nureddin Atassi
in 1966. During the June 1967 War, the threat of Soviet
intervention on behalf of Syria and Egypt was partly responsible
for halting the Israeli advance on both fronts. After the June
1967 War, Soviet military aid to Syria grew substantially and the
Soviets established a sizable military presence there.
Assad's
rise to power led to a strengthening of political and
military ties with the Soviet Union. Contributing to these closer
relations was Egypt's sudden ouster of Soviet military advisers
in July 1972, which caused an increased Soviet interest in Syria.
The months preceding the October 1973 War saw a significant
increase in Soviet arms flow to Syria. During the war, Soviet
military advisers supervised the operations at SAM sites and were
present at Syrian command posts.
The
most significant Soviet involvement between October 10-
23, 1973, however, was its airlift of almost 4,000 tons of
military equipment and its sealift of considerably more, to rearm
the Syrian and Egyptian armies. Within a year after the ceasefire, the
Soviets had more than replaced Syria's massive
equipment loss.
However,
Syria's intervention in the Lebanese Civil War
against leftist Muslim forces in 1976 led to a strain in Soviet-
Syrian relations. For more than a year, the Soviets suspended
deliveries of military materiel, while Syria retaliated by
reducing its Soviet military presence and halting training for
its military in the Soviet Union. To replace Soviet support,
Saudi Arabia supplied most of the funds to maintain Syria's
troops in Lebanon. By 1987, however, Saudi financial aid was
believed to have decreased.
During
the Syrian-Soviet rapprochement in 1978, Libya
reportedly supplied the equivalent of US$500 million to US$1
billion to pay for Syria's Soviet-supplied weaponry, including 12
MiG-27s.
Syria
was also able to pay for Soviet weaponry as a result of
the October 1978 Arab summit in Baghdad that pledged payments to
Syria (as well as to Jordan and the PLO) if it agreed to reject
the Camp David accords (signed in Washington in September 1978).
Under the agreement, Syria was allotted US$1.8 billion annually.
Only a few countries, however, notably Saudi Arabia and Kuwait,
maintained regular payments; consequently, Syria has received
only US$700 to $800 million per year in Baghdad Agreement aid
(see Balance of Payments, ch. 3).
From
1979 to 1983, the Soviet Union delivered US$9.2 billion
in arms transfers (out of a total of US$10.53 billion pledged).
Czechoslovakia was the next largest supplier, with US$470 million
in military aid. China delivered US$90 million, Poland US$30
million, and Romania US$20 million. In addition, Syria received
US$200 million in military aid from France, US$180 million from
Britain, and US$40 million from West Germany.
In
addition to arms, Syria received military advisers and
technicians from the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe and sent
military personnel to those countries for training. The number of
such advisers and technicians in Syria was estimated at 3,500 in
the aftermath of the 1973 War, 2,500 in 1976, 2,000 to 3,000 in
1978, 5,300 in 1984, and 2,300 in 1986. With regard to training,
the United States Central Intelligence Agency has estimated that
6,600 Syrian military personnel trained in the Soviet Union
between 1955 and 1985 and a further 1,515 trained in other East
European countries.
Some
observers saw the 1980 Treaty of Friendship and
Cooperation between Syria and the Soviet Union as the culmination
of the two countries' relationship. From the Syrian perspective,
however, this treaty had a deep-seated flaw; there was no
reference in it to Syria's position in Lebanon. Syria wanted and
had requested a "strategic agreement" with the Soviet Union to
offset any United States-Israeli agreement. Yet no such Soviet
Syrian agreement was signed and no broader alliance evolved,
although the Soviet Union increased its military assistance
following Syria's 1982 defeat in Lebanon. While maintaining its
sovereignty, Syria expressed appreciation for Soviet assistance
by granting the Soviets facilities to base reconnaissance
aircraft and expanding the ports of Latakia and Tartus to
accommodate large Soviet ships.
In
1983 and 1984, the Soviet Union increased involvement by
installing SAM-5, SAM-6, SAM-9, and SS-21 missile systems in
Syria. These SAM systems, which had adequate range to cover a
major part of the region, were at first manned and protected by
Soviet advisers and troops and have only gradually been turned
over to Syrian control. The large Soviet resupply of SAM systems
was interpreted by the United States, Israel, and Jordan as a
Soviet response to the massive destruction of Soviet-built SAMs
in the Lebanese War, among other reasons. Syria acquired
additional T-72 tanks following Assad's October 1984 visit to
Moscow.
In
1983 Syria's rejection of the Camp David accords, its
alleged support for international terrorism, and its close
friendship with the Soviet Union led the United States Congress
to prohibit any new aid; since 1979, no new American aid has been
assigned to Syria. Meanwhile, despite, or perhaps because of, the
dominant Soviet influence on the armed forces, Assad has
repeatedly sought to diversify Syria's source of armaments, for
instance, by negotiations with France. However, Syrian-French
arms deals broke down over the issue of Syrian support for anti-
French terrorist groups. In general, Syrian efforts to purchase
Western defense technology have been unsuccessful.
By
1987, the Syrian armed forces were increasingly
professional and well-equipped. The Syrian armed forces totaled
500,000 regulars and 340,000 reservists in 1985. These figures
represented a tremendous expansion in the manpower, training, and
equipment, achieved with considerable financial and military aid
from the Arab states and the Soviet Union and several of its East
European allies. By early 1987, the vast majority of Syrian
military equipment was Soviet manufactured and the organization
and military doctrine of the armed forces followed the Soviet
model.
President
Assad was commander in chief of the armed forces,
retaining the rank of lieutenant general. Directly responsible to
Assad was the flamboyant Deputy Premier and Defense Minister
General Mustafa Tlas, who also held the title of deputy commander
in chief of the armed forces and army. Although a Sunni Muslim,
Tlas has been a close friend of Assad since they were deputed as
officers to the Egyptian Army (1959-61). Tlas was jailed for his
part in an abortive officers' coup in 1962-63 in cooperation with
Assad and later helped bring Assad to power. A tank commander, he
was appointed lieutenant general and, in March 1972, minister of
defense. He received general staff training in Moscow at the
Voroshilov Academy and advocates close ties with the Soviet Union
and a hard line on the Arab-Israeli conflict. Vice president for
military and national security affairs was the president's
brother, the volatile Rifaat al Assad. As a result of political
infighting over the issue of succession to Assad, Rifaat was
living in temporary exile in France in early 1987. Chief of the
General Staff and Chief of the Armed Forces Lieutenant General
Hikmat Shihabi was third in command. General Ali Aslan was deputy
chief of the general staff. Commander of the ground forces was
Major General Yusuf Bin Raghib Shakur. The air force retained its
own commander, Major General Ibrahim Hassan. The navy commander
was Rear Admiral Mustafa Tayara.
The
chief of staff of the armed forces functions through the
general staff, an administrative body that is divided into the
usual branches, such as personnel, intelligence, training, and
logistics. The general staff does not possess decision-making
powers; these are largely confined to the commanders and chiefs
of staff acting on behalf of the president. In 1970 a "political
department" was established "to guide members of the armed forces
ideologically and to instill in them loyalty toward the present
regime."
The
general atmosphere and the amenities associated with
military life have steadily and considerably improved since 1946.
With rare exceptions, Syrian government and political leaders
have recognized the need for favorable conditions of service so
as to maintain the loyalty of their primary source of power.
Officers, for example, were reported to be able to buy
automobiles without the usual 200-percent duty and to obtain
interest-free government loans for down payments on living
quarters.
The
life of the ordinary soldier, however, was not an easy
one. His daily routine was concentrated and arduous, and
discipline was strict and often severe. However, a long-range
program of construction and rehabilitation, initiated during the
early 1960s, improved the living conditions on many bases. In
1987, quarters, food, and pay compared favorably with what a
worker could obtain in the civilian economy. Accrual of leave,
retirement, medical care, and other benefits also made military
service attractive. There were no reliable figures on military
pay available in 1987, but the indications were that rates were
relatively high by the standards of many other Arab armies. There
were also supplementary allowances for both officers and enlisted
men, which in many cases totaled more than the basic rate. For
example, various specialists, both officers and enlisted,
received substantial amounts of technical pay. Additional
compensation for flight personnel, paratroops, and men engaged in
other kinds of hazardous duty had been established.
Improved
conditions of service have improved morale in the
ranks. The relative political stability of the 1970s and 1980s
has also raised morale. The previous three decades had witnessed
frequent changes of government by military coups d'état, leading
to purges, imprisonments, or the execution of officers associated
with the deposed regime. Under Assad, the top army ranks have
felt more secure. The ambitious rebuilding of the armed forces
also increased the prestige and morale of the military.
Nevertheless, by early 1987, the eleven-year-old occupation and
frequent fighting in Lebanon were reportedly affecting the army's
morale. Frequent rotation of troops limited exposure to an
unsatisfactory military situation and the corrupting influences
of the war-torn Lebanese environment and reduced periods that
soldiers were away from their families.
As
in the past, in 1987 the typical enlisted man, whether a
conscript or a volunteer, came from a traditional authoritarian
Muslim family and accepted discipline as a regular requirement of
military life. A system of military courts existed to try cases
involving disciplinary and criminal offenses in the armed forces.
Although the information available in 1987 was incomplete and
somewhat dated, observers noted the existence of two kinds of
military courts. In one, a single judge heard cases involving
routine disciplinary matters and minor criminal offenses. The
other, which was composed of three judges, tried felonies and
other major crimes. Judges in both courts were officers who had
earned a law degree. Two additional military courts--the State
Security Court and the Supreme State Security Court--were
established in the early 1970s to hear cases involving breaches
of security, i.e., political crimes (see Crime and Punishment,
this ch.). Both civilian and military personnel were subject to
trial by these special courts.
The
vast majority of manpower for the armed forces came from
male conscription, which has been compulsory and universal (only
the small Jewish community is exempted) since 1946 and was
officially reaffirmed by the Service of the Flag Law in 1953.
Females are not required to serve, although some do; however,
they play more a public relations than a military role. Males
must register for the draft at 18; each year around 125,000 reach
19, which is when the 30-month conscription period begins. In
1985 it was estimated that of the country's population of over 10
million, 1.25 million were males fit for military service.
Before
the rise to power of the Baath Party in 1963, middle
and upper class youths, who have rarely been attracted to
military service, were often exempted from conscription on
payment of a fee. Since then, this practice has been eliminated,
although youths living abroad in Arab countries continued to be
exempted on payment of a fee set by law. University students were
exempted, but many attended military training camps during the
summer, and all were obligated to do military service upon
completion of their studies. Observers stated that those
conscripted in the mid-1980s represented a broad cross section of
society.
Conscripts
faced a series of options in the Syrian Army.
After completion of his period of conscription, a man could
enlist for five years in the regular service or, if he chose not
to enlist, he would serve as a reservist for eighteen years. If
he enlisted and became a noncommissioned officer during his fiveyear
service, he could become a professional noncommissioned
officer. A volunteer who did not attain noncommissioned officer
status could reenlist but was automatically discharged after
fifteen years of service or upon reaching age forty. A
professional noncommissioned officer was retired at age fortyfive or,
at his own request, after twenty years of service.
Conscripts
and enlisted men generally lacked mechanical and
technical skills, although beginning in the 1970s the number of
conscripts who had completed the six years of primary school
increased dramatically, as did the number of secondary and
vocational school graduates. The rugged rural origin of most
conscripts has conditioned them to endure hardship and accept
strict discipline. Military service has given most recruits the
opportunity to improve their health and, because they receive
technical training during most of their active duty, to leave the
service with a marketable skill.
Officers
have tended to be less representative of the general
society than conscripts, primarily because of the high degree of
politicization of the officer corps. Although officers were not
required to join the Baath Party, membership was a crucial factor
for advancement to flag rank.
In
addition to political loyalty, the officer corps was
characterized by the dominance of the Alawi and Druze minorities,
a condition dating from the French Mandate policy of recruiting
these and other minority groups into the colonial military
forces. Although many of the officers were Sunni Muslim, most of
the key senior posts were held by Alawis.
-
In
1987, the army was overwhelmingly the dominant service. In
addition to its control of the seniormost posts in the armed
forces' establishment, the army had the largest manpower,
approximately 80 percent of the combined services. In 1985 army
regulars were estimated at 396,000, with an additional 300,000
reserves. The army had nine divisional formations. The major
development in force organization was establishment of an
additional divisional framework based on the special forces and
organization of ground formations into two corps. The army's
active manpower served in two all-arms army corps, five armored
divisions (with one independent armored brigade), three
mechanized divisions, one infantry-special forces division, and
ten airborne-special forces independent brigades.
In
addition to being the largest, the army was the best
equipped of the three services, with over 4,100 Soviet-built
tanks (including 1,000 of the advanced T-72's) and a formidable
air defense system of SAM batteries and myriad antiaircraft guns
and artillery. In 1987, Syria was scheduled to receive 500 new
Soviet SS-23 ballistic missiles with a range of 500 kilometers.
Syria was also reported to have begun producing its own chemical
weapons, including nerve gases, with the capability to use the
chemical agents in missile warheads. The Air Defense Command,
within the Army Command, but also composed of Air Force
personnel, numbered approximately 60,000. It served in twenty air
defense brigades (with approximately ninety-five SAM batteries)
and two air defense regiments. The Air Defense Command had
command access to interceptor aircraft and radar facilities. Air
defenses included SA-5 long-range SAM batteries around Damascus
and Aleppo, with additional SA-6 and SA-8 mobile SAM units
deployed along Syria's side of the Lebanese border and in eastern
Lebanon, and short-range SS-21 surface-to-surface missiles with
conventional warheads. The 1,800-man Border Guard (sometimes
designated as Desert Guard or Frontier Force) was also under Army
Command and responsible for patrolling the nation's vast border
areas (see table 11 Major Army Equipment, 1986 __, Appendix).
In
1985 the navy consisted of approximately 4,000 regular and
2,500 reserve officers and men. The navy, lacking parity with the
other services, was under the army's Latakia regional command.
The fleet was based in the ports of Latakia, Baniyas, Minat al
Bayda, and Tartus. Among the 41 vessel fleet were 2 or 3 Soviet
submarines (including 2 Romeo-type diesel-electric submarines,
transferred by the Soviet Navy in 1985), 22 missile attack craft
(including 10 advanced Osa II missile boats), 2 submarine
chasers, 4 mine warfare vessels, 8 gunboats, 6 patrol craft, 4
missile corvettes (on order), 3 landing craft (on order), 1
torpedo recovery vessel and, as part of its coastal defense
system, Sepal shore-to-sea missiles with a range of 300
kilometers (see table 12 Major Navy Equipment __, Appendix).
The
Air Force, which was independent of Army Command,
consisted of about 100,000 regular and 37,500 reserve officers
and men. In 1985 its 9 fighter-ground attack squadrons and an
estimated 15 interceptor squadrons totaled approximately 650
combat aircraft. Almost all combat planes were Soviet manufactured and
included 50 MiG-25 and MiG-25R (Foxbat)
interceptors and nearly 200 MiG-23S/U (Flogger) and Su-17 Fitter-K
ground-attack and multirole aircraft (see table 13 Major Air
Force Equipment __, Appendix). In 1986 there were reports that
the Soviet Union had agreed to provide Syria at least two
squadrons of the advanced supersonic MiG-29 Fulcrum fighter
aircraft equipped with top-of-the-line avionics. The air force
was equipped with approximately ninety attack helicopters of the
Mi-24/Mi-25 Hind and SA-342 Gazelle types. As part of an effort
to upgrade its command-and-control network, the air force was
reported to have the Tu-126 (Moss) AWACS. Military airfields were
located in Aleppo, Blay, Damascus (international), Damascus (Al
Mazzah), Dayr az Zawr, Dumayr, As Suwayda, Hamah, Khalkhalah,
Latakia, Nasiriyah, Tadmur, Sayqal, T-4 (located on the oil
pipeline), and seven additional sites (see fig. 1).
Syria
also had a Republican Guard, which was responsible for
Assad's security. Together with the Defense Companies, the
Republican Guard provided bodyguards assigned on the basis of
personal loyalties and affiliations to leading members of the
regime and top officials. The Republican Guard was commanded by
Adnan Makhluf, the president's brother-in-law. Political allies
and associates of Rifaat al Assad, on the other hand, were given
bodyguards from the Defense Companies.
Service
uniforms for Syrian officers generally follow the
British style, although army combat clothing follows the Soviet
model. Each uniform has two coats: a long one for dress and a
short jacket for informal wear. Army officer uniforms are khaki
in summer, olive in winter. Air force officers have two uniforms
for each season: a khaki and a light gray for summer and a dark
blue and a light gray in winter. Naval officers wear white in
summer and navy blue in winter. Lower ranks wear the traditional
bell bottoms and white blouse. The uniform for naval chief petty
officers is a buttoned jacket, similar to that worn by United
States chief petty officers. Officers have a variety of headgear,
including a service cap, garrison cap, and beret (linen in summer
and wool in winter). The color of the beret varies by season and
according to the officer's unit.
Commissioned
officers' rank insignia are identical for the
army and air force. These are gold on a bright green shoulder
board for the army and gold on a bright blue board for the air
force. Officer ranks are standard, although the highest is the
equivalent of lieutenant general, a rank held in 1986 only by the
commander in chief and the minister of defense. Navy officer rank
insignia are gold stripes worn on the lower sleeve. The highest
ranking officer in Syria's navy is the equivalent of lieutenant
general. Army and air force rank for warrant officers is
indicated by gold stars on an olive green shield worn on the
upper left arm. Lower noncommissioned ranks are indicated by
upright and inverted chevrons worn on the upper left arm (see
fig. __ Ranks and Insignias).
Although
some twenty-five orders and medals are authorized,
generally only senior officers and warrant officers wear medal
ribbons. The following are some important Syrian awards: Order of
Umayyads, Medal of Military Honor, the War Medal, Medal for
Courage, Yarmuk Medal, Wounded in Action Medal, and Medal of
March 8, 1963.
In
1987 three military schools were training commissioned
officers for the services: the Military Academy, the Naval
Academy, and the Air Force Academy. Young men from eighteen to
twenty-three could apply for admission to the school of their
choice. Selections were made from those who passed the required
entrance examination, were physically qualified, and were
considered politically loyal. All three academies conducted a
standard two-year course leading to a commission immediately on
completion of the course.
The
Military Academy, located at Homs, was founded by the
French in 1933 and is the oldest and largest of the service
institutions. It was primarily a school for training infantry
officers. Graduates selected for the other services went on to
additional specialized training at other army-operated specialist
schools. Selected graduates were frequently sent for advanced
training to military academies in the Soviet Union.
The
Naval Academy, at Latakia, began operations in 1962 after
the breakup of the union with Egypt and the recall of Syrian
students attending the Egyptian Naval Academy. Its facilities and
student body were limited, and it has produced only a handful of
graduates each year.
The
Air Force Academy was located at Nayrab Airbase, near
Aleppo. It was established in 1960 and took over the training of
air officers, who were formerly sent abroad for schooling,
usually to Britain, France, or Egypt. The curriculum provided
instruction in theoretical, technical, and scientific subjects
and included basic flight training. The academy has trained
technical officers as well as pilots. For training in advanced
jet aircraft, however, pilots have been sent to Soviet or East
European flight schools. Technical graduates have generally
attended Soviet schools for advanced technical training, but
since 1964, increased technical training has been conducted at
Syrian bases.
Reserve
officers were trained at a fourth institution in
Aleppo. Candidates, in many cases college graduates, were
selected from among incoming annual classes of conscripts. They
attended a concentrated nine-month course and were then assigned
to units, usually in the infantry, as officer candidates. Those
who met the qualifications continued as candidates until one
month before completion of their required tours of duty, at which
time they received their commissions as reserve second
lieutenants.
In
the past, the standards maintained in officer training
varied widely because of the country's frequent political
changes. In addition, the differences in the experiences of
officers trained in France, Britain, Egypt, Iraq, the United
States, and the Soviet Union created a divergence of military and
political doctrines within the officer corps. Since 1963,
however, training has become increasingly systematic and
standardized along Soviet lines. By 1987 graduates of Syrian
military academies emerged as dedicated and professional
soldiers.