USSPACECOM
The United States Space Command (USSPACECOM), with its headquarters at Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado Springs, Colorado, is the unifed command responsible for all U.S. military activities in space. It is one of the nine unified commands under the U.S. Department of Defense. USSPACECOM oversees three service component commands: Army Space Command (USARSPACE), Naval Space Command (NAVSPACECOM), and Air Force Space Command (AFSPACECOM). It also includes one functional component (SPACEAF) and Joint Task Force Cheyenne Mountain Operations (JTF-CM).
On 23 September 1985, the United States Space Command was activated to consolidate all military space efforts under the direction of one commander in chief (CINC). The CINC is directly responsible to the President through the Secretary of Defense and Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff. The command is staffed by personnel from the Army, Marine Corps, Navy and Air Force.
USSPACECOM provides joint employment of military force and operational support to other unified combatant commands. The command performs these functions through four primary missions: space support, force enhancement, space control and force application.
USSPACECOM's assigned forces include approximately 5,920 military and civilian personnel. The joint-service staff of Headquarters, US Space Command numbers about 780 Army, Marine Corps, Air Force and Navy personnel, and about 122 civilian employees.
USCINCSPACE
The Commander in Chief, United States Space Command (USPACECOM) exercises
operational control command over all forces assigned. Commands, plans,
for, coordinates and employs forces to conduct those activities
in space which support U.S. national objectives. 1
From the late 1950's to the 1980's, it was inevitable that each military service would develop specialized space operations and space support systems.
SPACE OPERATIONS
Space Operations include operating Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) designated space systems in support of the National Command Authorities (NCA), the JCS, and unified commanders.
SUPPORT SYSTEMS
Space Support Systems are systems that provide launch services, logistics support to the launch site, and command and control of on-orbit military space systems.
The Air Force concentrated on intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and later, extensive satellite applications for military use in communications, surveillance, and navigation. The Air Force Space Command was formed in September 1982. By this time, the new command was responsible for tracking the results of more than 345 US military launches and 1,015 Soviet military launches. 2
As an Air Force major command, AFSPACECOM had the mission to organize, train, equip, sustain (to include logistical support), and operate assigned Air Force space, operational launch, surveillance, and missile warning systems. General James V. Hartinger, the first commander of AFSPACECOM said, "Simply put, our job is to manage, control and protect assigned operational space assets."
Early long-range ballistic missiles had a range of less than 1,500 nautical miles. Rapid development of larger, heavier launch vehicles increased the range to more than 5,000 nautical miles. These newer missiles became known as Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs).3
The Navy had an interest in high-altitude rockets and early satellite
technology for use in weather and environment, which eventually
grew into fleet communications, surveillance, and space based navigation
systems. The Naval Space Command was formed in October 1983.
The Navy quickly learned the value of using satellites to determine weather conditions far in advance of their limited-range shipborne radar. Not only did it allow ships to avoid storms at sea, but satellites were also useful in determining sea temperatures, ice pack locations, and height of cloud tops. The first US weather satellite was Explorer 6, launched in 1959. Now, the primary military weather satellite system is the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) which became operational in 1964. DMSP services are also available to civil operations. 4
The first US communications satellite was Explorer 1, launched in 1958. Since 1978, US Navy forces deployed worldwide relied upon the Fleet Satellite Communications (FLTSATCOM) System for UHF communications. Using geostationary satellites over the Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and Indian Ocean, FLTSATCOM also provides the host vehicles for USAF AFSATCOM transponders. 5
The first US surveillance satellite was Discoverer, launched in 1959. Since 1964 the US Navy has operated the Naval Space Surveillance System (NAVSPASUR). Basically a radar "fence" spanning the CONUS, the system detects space objects which penetrate the "fence". NAVSPASUR was a vital part of NORAD's Space Detection and Tracking System.6
The Navy initially relied upon the Navy Navigation Satellite System (TRANSIT) which was first launched in 1959 and fully operational in 1964. Designed to support the precise navigation requirements of the Fleet Ballistic Missile submarines, TRANSIT was expanded to cover the entire US fleet, US government agencies, and commercial seagoing vessels. TRANSIT was later supplemented with the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS).7
Dahlgren, Virginia was selected as the site of the new Naval Space Command headquarters because the Naval Space Surveillance System activity was already located there. Plus, it met the new command's requirements with minimal changes. The necessary communications links to other space related command centers were already in place. When Commodore Richard H. Truly became the first commander of Naval Space Command, he stated that the command's mission was to operate space systems, not develop nor acquire new systems.8
The Army operated the Anti-Ballistic Missile Defense System in the US and therefore focused their research efforts on improving boosters and launch vehicles. The Army Space Agency was formed in August 1986.
The US Army Space Agency was established at Peterson AFB, Colorado. It provided the Army perspective in planning for space system force enhancement to land forces and strategic defense operations. In April 1988, the agency changed its name to US Army Space Command.10
USSPACECOM has a mix of expendable boosters and reusable launch vehicles. An expendable vehicle is a "one time use" booster system used for placing payloads into orbit. A reusable vehicle can place payloads into orbit, return to earth, and be refurbished for later reuse (e.g. the Space Shuttle).
The Scout is the smallest launch vehicle in the US inventory and is used for small (less than 500 lbs) payloads like the TRANSIT satellites.
The Delta launch vehicle was first launched in 1960 and used a Thor intermediate range ballistic missile for its basic construction.
The Atlas was the first US ICBM. It was removed from operational use in the early 1960s. Modified Atlas missiles are now used primarily for launching DMSP satellites until the few remaining Atlas' are used up. The Atlas I and II versions are used primarily for launching DSCS satellites.
Titan 34D was the heaviest launch vehicle until Titan IV came into service. In late 1985 and early 1986, two successive Titan 34D launches failed. These failures, coupled with the loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger, created a backlog in space launches that took 7 years to overcome.
Prior to 1986, the AF used the Space Shuttle to launch DSCS satellites. After the shuttle Challenger loss, the DoD determined that no critical military payloads would be launched via the shuttle.
Titan II missiles are converted ICBMs that were retired from operational service. Between 1964 and 1966 they were used in the NASA Gemini program. Since 1988 they have been used primarily to launch DMSP satellites.
The Tital IV is the largest and newest unmanned launch vehicle in the inventory. First launched in 1989, it is designed to carry payloads equivalent in size and weight to those carried on the Space Shuttle.
The Delta II is 12-feet longer than the Delta and was designed to accommodate GPS satellites. The first Delta II was launched in 1989.9
After the Air Force and Navy formed their own major commands dealing with space, initial steps were taken toward forming a unified space command. This unified command could integrate operational space systems into the national command structure and help ensure control and management of space forces for directing warfighting needs.
In 1981, Rep Ken Kramer (D-Colorado) introduced a bill (HR 5130) that would establish a separate space command. The bill had high level support but it was debated if the command should be unified or strictly Air Force. Kramer recommended it begin as an Air Force organization and later convert to a unified command. It's interesting to note that his bill also recommended changing the name of the US Air Force to US Aerospace Force, but that portion of the bill was quickly defeated.11
By the early 1980's, significant new directions were proposed and policy formulated for military and national use of space. The growth in the importance of space and the number of space systems led to the formation of separate service commands dedicated to space operations.
In accordance with existing treaties and international law, the US developed a National Space Policy. This policy governs space activities in the civil sector, com- mercial sector, and national def-ense/military. The policy reaffirms US commitment to the exploration and use of space in support of our national well-being. The policy also recognizes that leadership requires US preeminence in key areas of space activity critical to achieving national security, tech-nical, scientific, economic, and foreign policy goals. It also states the long term goal of expanding human presence and activity beyond Earth orbit into the solar system.12
At the same time, several presidential initiatives, including the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) announced by President Ronald Reagan in March 1983, focused national attention on space policy and the military use of space.
SDI
In a televised address to the nation on 23 Mar 83, President Reagan presented a speech which laid out a comprehensive plan for layered defenses against enemy ICBMs outside the earth's atmos- phere. The ultimate goal was to reduce the danger of nuclear war and prov-ide security for the US and its allies. Officially known as the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), it was quickly dubbed "Star Wars" after a popular movie.13
Beginning in 1983, the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) took specific
steps toward formation of a unified space command. After studying
a proposal made by the Chief of Staff of the Air Force, the JCS
recommended establishment of such a command. Secretary of Defense
Casper Weinberger recommended to the National Security Council
(NSC) that the President
approve such a proposal. President Reagan approved the formation.
The JCS members who proposed the establishment of USSPACECOM were:
| Chairman | GEN John W. Vessey, Jr. |
| Army Chief of Staff | GEN John A. Wickham, Jr. |
| USAF Chief of Staff | Gen Charles A. Gabriel |
| Chief of Naval Operations | ADM James D. Watkins |
| Commandant, USMC | Gen Paul X. Kelley |
The NSC members who recommended the establishment of USSPACECOM were:
| President | Ronald W. Reagan |
| Vice President | George H. W. Bush |
| Secretary of State | George P. Shultz |
| Secretary of Defense | Casper Weinberger |
From late 1984 through 1985, the Joint Chiefs of Staff planned for the assignment of missions and the establishment of organizational roles and relationships for the new USSPACECOM. Because the new unified command would directly affect the mission of the Aerospace Defense Command (ADCOM) a specified command, the then commander-in-chief of ADCOM was involved in the review of mission assignments and provided advice on the final arrangements.
ADCOM
The Air Defense Command (ADC) was established in January 1951 at Ent AFB, Colorado. Its mission was to provide for the Air Defense of the US using a system of early warning radars to detect aircraft and to deploy fighter interceptor aircraft if necessary. In January 1968 ADC changed its name from "Air" to "Aerospace" and was named ADCOM. In October 1979 ADCOM was inactivated and its mission divided among USAF major commands. Strategic Air Command (SAC) assumed responsibilities for space surveillance and missile warning. Tactical Air Command (TAC) assumed control of active ADCOM fighter interceptor squadrons and ground-based defense radars.14
By August 1985, assignment of missions and responsibilities was complete. Relationships between the new unified command and the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) had been determined along with the final conditions for activating the command at Peterson AFB in Colorado Springs, Colorado. The new US Space Command (USSPACECOM) was officially established on 23 September 1985.15
NORAD
The North American Air Defense Command (NORAD) was formed in 1957 to safeguard the sovereign airspace of North America. Commanded by a USAF four star general with a Canadian Air Force three star general, NORAD provides missile warning and aerospace surveillance, plus the capability to defend against air attack. NORAD headquarters was established at Peterson Field in Colorado Springs, Colorado. In 1981 NORAD underwent a name change, substituting the word "Aerospace" for "Air" to reflect the growing importance of space defense and missile warning.